The treaty of Paris (1783) recognized the United States as an independent nation. However the making of this new nation was not easily achieved. Each American state had its own government and behaved like an independent country: it made its own laws. So the problem was to put together these little nations into one united nation. The Continental Congress adopted the "Articles of Confederation" produced by John Dickinson in 1776, they went into effect in 1781. A National Congress was to be set up. The Articles of Confederation did not give the central government many rights, moreover, to make those rights effective, it had to have the approval of the states.

I. The Constitution and the Bill of Rights

   In May 1787, a convention met in Philadelphia to draft a new Constitution which established a stronger federal government empowered to collect taxes, conduct diplomacy, maintain armed forces and regulate foreign trade and commerce among the states. Not all Americans embraced this new Constitution, however, and the ratification of the document produced many disagreements. Even so, the Constitution was ratified, and with a new constitution in place, Americans once again turned to George Washington for leadership, this time as President of the new republic.

   The new system of government had to be approved by a majority of the citizens in at least nine of the thirteen states. The Constitution was ratified by the several States, on the following dates:

   *Delaware, December 7, 1787

   *Pennsylvania, December 12, 1787

   *New Jersey, December 18, 1787

   *Georgia, January 2, 1788

   *Connecticut, January 9, 1788

   *Massachusetts, February 6, 1788

   *Maryland, April 28, 1788

   *South Carolina, May 23, 1788

   *New Hampshire, June 21, 1788.

   *Virginia, June 25, 1788

   *New York, July 26, 1788

   *North Carolina, November 21, 1789

   *Rhode Island, May 29, 1790

   The Constitution went into effect in March 1789. In 1791 ten amendments were made to it: the Bill of Rights: the Constitution said nothing about the rights and freedoms of individual citizens.

II. The Three Branches of the Government

   The Constitution divided the government into three branches, each separate and distinct from one another. The powers given to each are balanced by the powers of the other two, and each branch serves as a check on potential excesses of the others. This was to make sure that no one person or group could become powerful enough to take complete control of the nation's government.

   1. The Executive

   * The President is the head of the State and of the government. He is elected by the electoral college: Instead of voting for a specific candidate, voters select a panel of individuals pledged to vote for a specific candidate.in a general presidential election, voters select electors to represent their vote in the Electoral College.

   The president is elected for four years with the possibility to be reelected  for a second term. He is the Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. He is the ultimate foreign policy maker. He nominates the Court justices.

   He can veto bills but Congress can override it. He can be removed of office (impeachment). If the president is ill or assassinated, the Vice-President takes over.

   * The Vice-President is elected with the President. He is also the presiding officer of the Senate.

   * The administration: _ the cabinet: The President appoints a group of cabinet officers called secretaries (except for the Department of Justice: the attorney general), to head each of the fourteen departments.

                                     _ the staff: advisers, speech writers. the head of this staff is called the Chief of Staff.

                                     _ the independent federal agencies and commissions: the regulatory agencies.

   2. The Legislative

   The Congress consists of two houses: the House of Representatives and the Senate. The Congress is the lawmaking branch of the federal government. No law can be adopted unless it is first passed in identical form by a majority of the members of each house.

   * The House of Representatives: Representation is based on the number of people living in each state. Each member represents an area of the state. The first House had 65 members. It grew until in 1913 it had 435 members like today. The representatives are elected every 2 years. Each representative has one vote. To become a representative one has to be over 25, to have been a citizen of the United States for seven years, and to be a resident of the state that he or she is representing. The speaker of the House is elected by the majority party.

The House of Representatives can: _ start laws that make people pay taxes;

                                                       _ decide if a government official should be put on trial before the Senate (impeachment).

   * The Senate: It has 100 members. Each of the 50 states send 2 people to the Senate. They are elected fo 2 years. Each senator has one vote. to become a senator one has to be over 30, to have been a citizen of the United States for nine years and to be a resident of the state from which he or she is elected. The Senate is headed by the Vice President. It permits him to vote only when senators' votes are equally divided.

The Senate can: _ approve or not of any treaties the president makes;

                          _ approve or not of the people the president nominates.

   3. The Judiciary

The Supreme Court consists of nine justices who are nominated by the president and confirmed by the Senate. Justices are appointed for life but they can retire. One of the nine justices is the "Chief Justice", he presides over the Court's meetings.

The Supreme Court judges cases that involve:

_ federal laws;

_ actions of the president;

_ treaties;

_ laws passed by the states governments;

so as to ensure that these laws are constitutional.

III. George Washington's presidency (1789-1797)

   Washington presided over the Constitutional Convention in 1787. He helped secure the adoption of the Constitution. Washington was unanimously chosen the first President and took office on Apr. 30, 1789 in New York City. John Adams was elected Vice President.

   The new President gave his inaugural address before a joint session of the two Houses of Congress. He earned the nickname "The Father of our Country."

   The Secretary of State was Thomas Jefferson, Edmund Randolph was the Attorney General, Alexander Hamilton was the Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Knox was the Secretary of War.

   Washington was aware of the need to build an executive structure that could accommodate future presidents.

   Although Washington was very popular, conflicts over the proper functions of governmental power occurred during his presidency. It soon led to the formation of factions and then political parties (the Republican Party and the Federalist Party) that were deeply divided over the nature and purposes of the federal government, over foreign affairs, and over the very future of the new nation. The Federalist Party favored a strong President and federal government, so it appealed to the richest people. On the contrary, the Democratic Republican Party supported the rights of the individual states, thus appealing to the less wealthy.

   Washington was reelected in 1793 and the most divisive crisis occurred over the issue of American neutrality during the war between England and France. Shortly after the outbreak of the war, Washington  issued a Neutrality Proclamation in 1793. In 1793 The United States was a militarily weak and politically disunited nation.

   In 1796 after Washington refused to run for a third term, he wrote an essay, entitled "Washington's Farewell Address" in which he cautioned future American leaders to "be wary of foreign entanglements." Washington summarizes the democratic principles the young republic should follow. It is one of the first isolationist document: the USA should stay distant, so as to be independent, they should remain neutral. Besides he hightlights the rule of conduct to follow: the need to expand trade.